Soil as the most important contributing factor in getting higher yield

[RAMU]

Soil is the most important contibuting factor in getting high yield . Because soil is the storehouse of mineral nutrients and deficiency of any one or more of plant nutrients will affect growth and yield of crop plants

different soil type …

collection of soil sample for analysis

[RAMU]

SOIL PROFILE OR PEDON

Brief Description of the Soil Orders

1Alfisols are naturally fertile soils with high base saturation and a clay enriched
subsoil horizon.
2. Andisols are relatively young soils, mostly of volcanic origin, that are
characterized by unique minerals with poorly organized crystalline structure.
3. Aridisols are the dry soils of deserts.
4. Entisols are young soils with little or no profile development.
5. Gelisols are very cold soils with permafrost in the subsoil.
6. Histosols are soils that formed in decaying organic material.
7. Inceptisols are youthful soils with a weak, but noticeable, degree of profile development.
8. Mollisols are very dark-colored, naturally very fertile soils of grasslands.
9. Oxisols are highly weathered tropical soils with low natural fertility.
10.Spodosols are acid soils with low fertility and accumulations of organic matter and iron and aluminum oxides in the subsoil.
11.Ultisols are soils with low base status and a clay-enriched subsoil.
12.Vertisols are very clayey soils that shrink and crack when dry and expand
when wet.
ALFISOLS

ANDISOLS

ARIDISOLS

GELISOLS

HISTOSOLS

INCEPTISOLS

MOLLISOLS

OXISOLS

SPODOSOLS

ULTISOLS

VERTISOLS

[RAMU]

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY IN PLANTS
Symptoms appear
in older leaves first
nitrogen
phosphorous
potassium
magnesium
Symptoms appear in younger leaves first
sulfur
calcium
boron, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chloride
NITROGEN

Plants are short, leaves tend to be pale green-yellow in colour, especially on the older foliage.

Nutrient Mobility in the Plant
Symptoms appear
in older leaves first
nitrogen
phosphorous
potassium
magnesium
Symptoms appear in younger leaves first
sulfur
calcium
boron, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chloride
NITROGEN

Plants are short, leaves tend to be pale green-yellow in colour, especially on the older foliage.

IN CITRUS

IN MAIZE

PHOSPHOROUS
Plants are usually stunted, and a dark green colour.
Symptoms occur on the older leaves first and plant maturity is often delayed
Purple or reddish color
Overall stunting
Reduced tillering in
small grains
MAIZE

BANANA

ROSE

P deficient cotton

POTASSIUM IN COTTON

TOMATO

COTTON

TURMERIC

COFFEE

CALCIUM
Young leaves are affected before older leaves and become distorted, small in size with spotted or necrotic (dead) areas.
Bud development is inhibited and root tips may die back.
Blossom end rot of tomatoes

Mg deficiency in cotton

Appears on older leaves first
Distinct interveinal reddish purple color

MAGNESIUM
MANGO

CITRUS

TOMATO

GRAPES

The older leaves developing yellowed areas between the veins which stay green.
Inverted V shaped chlorosis in mango
Reddening in cotton and Grapes
MAGNESIUM
Sulfur deficient cotton

ZINCE IN BANANA

ZINC DEFICIENCY IN MANGO

GUAVA - POTASSIUM , ZINCE AND BORON DEFICIENCY

COPPER DEFICIENCY IN CITRUS

COPPER DEFICIENCY IN GUAVA

BORON AND ZINC DEFICIENCY IN GRAPES

BORON DEFICIENCY IN GUAVA

BORON DEFICIENCY IN COCONUT

BORON DEFICIENCY IN GOOSEBERRY

MOLYBDENUM DEFICIENCY IN CITRUS

Malformation

COTTON FRUIT SHEDDING
Phytotoxicity

Damage caused
by
surfactants
Sulphur – copper Fungicide damage
Herbicide injury
Leaves with distortion
Malformation
Cupping of leaves

Leaf tip drying
Leaf tip drying

Water stagnation

PHOSPHOROUS
Plants are usually stunted, and a dark green colour.
Symptoms occur on the older leaves first and plant maturity is often delayed
Purple or reddish color
Overall stunting
Reduced tillering in
small grains

P deficient cotton

POTASSIUM IN TOMATO

CALCIUM
Young leaves are affected before older leaves and become distorted, small in size with spotted or necrotic (dead) areas.
Bud development is inhibited and root tips may die back.
Blossom end rot of tomatoes

Mg deficiency in cotton
Appears on older leaves first
Distinct interveinal reddish purple color

MAGNESIUM
The older leaves developing yellowed areas between the veins which stay green.
Inverted V shaped chlorosis in mango
Reddening in cotton and Grapes
MAGNESIUM
Sulfur deficient cotton
IRON DEFICIENCY IN CITRUS

Malformation
IN MANGO

MANGANESE DEFICIENCY IN ORANGE

COPPER DEFICIENCY IN CITRUS

COPPER DEFICIENCY IN AMLA ( GOOSEBERRY )

COPPER DEFICIENCY IN BANANA

COTTON FRUIT SHEDDING
Phytotoxicity

Damage caused
by
surfactants

Sulphur – copper Fungicide damage

Herbicide injury

BANANA LEAF MARGIN SCORCHING IN ALKALI SOIL

LEAF MARGIN DRYING IN MANGO GROWN IN ALKALI SOIL

LEAF TIP DRYING

POTATO

Leaves with distortion
Malformation
Cupping of leaves

Leaf tip drying
Leaf tip drying

Water stagnation

MOLYBDENUM DEFICIENCY IN CABBAGE

[RAMU]

ROOT FEEDING OF FUNGICIDE/ PESTICIDE IN COCONUT TREE

[RAMU]

Use Of Poor Quality Water Under Pressure Irrigation System For Problem Soils
Poor quality of water is one of the main factors turning many a good soil into saline or sodic soil. Water being an universal solvent, several salts are dissolved in it. The salt content of water is dependant on the characteristics of the parent material of the soil through which it passes. Considerable water is taken by the plant from the soil and transpired. If water contains much salts dissolved in it, these accumulate in the upper layers of the soil having been brought up to the surface by evaporation. If rainfall is not sufficient to leach down these salts, they accumulate over seasons and make the soil saline or sodic.
In agriculture, the quality of irrigation water is the prime factor that decides the plant growth and soil fertility status than the quantity of water available for irrigation. The continuous use of irrigation water of varying quality in terms of it’s higher salt content (saline), high Electrical Conductivity and Sodium Adsorption ratio (saline-sodic) or high Residual Sodium Carbonate (sodic water) affects the physical and chemical properties of soil over a long period of time.
Pressure Irrigation System:
Pressure irrigation system includes sprinkler irrigation, micro sprinkler irrigation, rain gun and drip irrigation. Except in drip irrigation water is applied over the plant canopy in other pressure irrigation methods. In drip irrigation water is applied frequently near the crop root zone according to the requirement keeping the soil moisture content near to field capacity.
Quality of Irrigation water :
(i) Salinity hazard:
Accumulation of soluble salts in the soil is directly related to the salt content of irrigation water. Higher proportion of soluble salts in soil solution increases the osmotic potential and thereby decreases water absorption, leading to physiological drought. Electrical Conductivity (EC) has been widely used to evaluate the salinity hazard.
EC in dSm-1 × 640 = Total soluble salts in ppm
Crop tolerance to salt, irrigation water (ECiw) and soil saturation extracts (ECe)
Crop tolerance to salinity Threshold Salinity (dSm-1)
ECiw ECe
Sensitive <1.0 <2.0
Moderately Sensitive 1.0-3.0 2.0-6.0
Tolerant >3.0 >6.0

(ii) Sodicity hazard:
Irrigation water containing higher proportion of sodium to other cations leads to problem of sodicity. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) and Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP) are used for evaluating sodicity hazard.
(iii) Carbonate hazard:
Carbonate and Bicarbonate ions are primarily important because of their tendency to precipitate calcium and to some extent magnesium in the soil solution. The effect of bicarbonate and carbonate ions on water quality is expressed in terms of Residual Sodium Carbonate. RSC less than 1.25 m.e./litre is suitable for irrigation, 1.25-2.50 is marginal and >2.50 is unsuitable.
Besides these, presence of boron, iron in excess in irrigation water is toxic. Boron beyond 2ppm is toxic to plants.

Quality of water
Quality Sodium ion (%) Total soluble salts at 250C (ppm) Boron (ppm)
Susceptible crops Moderate resistant crops Resistant crops
Very good 20 <250 <0.33 <0.67 <1.00
Good 20-40 250-750 0.33-0.67 0.67-1.33 1-2
Moderate 40-60 750-2000 0.67-1.00 1.33-2.00 2-3
Below moderate 60-80 2000-3000 1.00-1.25 2.00-2.50 3-3.75
Poor >80 >3000 >1.25 >2.50 >3.75

However under drip irrigation system water upto 1500mg/litre salt content can be used without any yield reduction. But in surface irrigation,
If salt content is <150mg/litre: Good yield
150-500 mg/litre: Satisfactory yield
500-1500 mg/litre: Low yield

1500 mg/litre : Only salt resistant crops can be grown
Pressure irrigation system and poor quality water :
Poor quality water is not suitable for use in sprinkler irrigation. Excess quantities of sodium and chloride can be absorbed through leaves wet by the sprinkler water and cause leaf burn. Poor quality water can be used in drip irrigation system as salt concentration in the root zone of the crop is reduced as salts are pushed away to the periphery of the wetted area.
Use of poor quality water in drip irrigation system
Relatively more saline water can be used with drip irrigation than with any other method. In the case of drip irrigation with saline water, depending on the discharge and quantity of water applied, a shallow pocket of salts 50-80cm radius accumulates surrounding the transmission zone. As the distance from the plant increases steadily either in lateral or vertical directions. As the soil moisture in the root zone is always kept close to field capacity, low salt concentration level is maintained in the root zone. The salts are leached to the outer periphery of the wetting zone and the development of osmotic stress in the root zone is prevented. All studies conducted with drip irrigation using saline water have shown that it is possible to use water of considerable salinity without any detriment to yield.
Salt concentration in soil mass
Conventional irrigation with saline water
Normal irrigation interval is at 50% ASM (Available Soil Moisture)
Concentration of salt water used for irrigation = 0.015 kg/m3
Let Volume of salt water just after irrigation = 1.0 m3
Therefore volume salt water just before irrigation = 0.5m3
Therefore Salt concentration in soil mass = 0.015/0.5 = 0.03kg/m3

Drip irrigation with saline water :
Very short irrigation interval Let it be at 0.90 ASM (90% ASM)
Volume of salt water just before next irrigation = 0.9×1=0.9m3
Salt water concentration in soil mass = 0.015/0.9=0.016 kg/m3
Here salt water concentration increases very slightly compared to surface irrigation wherein concentration of salt water increases by nearly 100%.

How in salty soil, drip method is useful:
When water moves over the root zone in drip irrigation system, the salts are dissolved from the root zone and taken to the periphery of the wetting zone. When water gets evaporated from soil surface, it leaves the salts at the periphery and salts build up away from the root zone.
If a very small rain (<5mm) occurs, there may be possibility of salts build up moving into the root zone. Because of this, plants appear wilted after small rains in saline lands.
The remedy for this is “If rain is less irrigate through drip sufficiently”.

Problems and Remedies in the operation of drip irrigation system with poor quality water :
Drip irrigation systems are presently being used successfully on a variety of row and tree crops. However emitter clogging and deposition of salts into laterals which adversely affect the rate of water application and uniformity of distribution and increases operating costs. Emitter clogging & Salt deposit in laterals & piping are generally due to poor quality of irrigation water with physical and chemical contaminants.
Clogging due to water quality
Clogging of emitters and deposits in piping are considered to the largest maintenance problem with drip system. Partial or complete clogging, reduces emission uniformity and in turn decreases irrigation efficiency, increases the water volume needed to crop, increases the operating cost of the system. Over irrigation causes
 Deep percolation
 Increase in water and energy costs
 Fertilizer leaching
 Drainage needs
Clogging can be caused physical, chemical or biological contaminants.
Causes of clogging in drip irrigation system
Physical
(Suspended solids) Chemical
(Precipitation) Biological
(Bacteria & algae)
Inorganic Particles
Sand, Silt, Clay, Plastic
Organic Particles
Aquatic plants
(Phyto planktons)
Aquatic animals
(Zoo planktons)
Bacteria

Calcium or magnesium carbonate 

Calcium sulphate
Heavy metal hydroxide,
Carbonate, Silicates and Sulphides
Iron, Copper, Zinc, Manganese.
Oil & Other lubricants.
Filaments
Slimes of iron & sulphur microbial depositions
Algae
Water quality classifications with respect to clogging
Clogging factors Hazard rating
Minor Moderate Severe
Suspended Solids
(mg/l) <200 200-400 >400
Electrical Conductivity (dSm-1) <1 1-4.5 >4.5
Total iron (mg/l) <0.5 0.5-1.2 >1.2
Manganese (mg/l) <0.7 0.7-1.0 >1.0
Calcium (mg/l) <250 250-450 >450
Magnesium (mg/l) <25 25-90 >90

Salt accumulation near plants:
Where high-salinity water is used in arid regions, salts tend to accumulate at the soil surface and towards the periphery of the wetted soil volume. Rain may wash harmful amounts of accumulated salts into the plant root zone and cause osmotic shock to the plants. Effective leaching of accumulated salts by continuing drip irrigation during the rainy season is very essential to avoid the osmotic shock, Extensive leaching is necessary before next crop is planted. In some situations it may be necessary to apply large preplant irrigations using sprinkler or flood methods.

Management of Clogging :
Maintenance of Filters:
Screen filters or disc filters made of stainless steel, metal, plastic are commonly used for well waters. Aquatic algae in the water tend to cause screen or disc blockage and will reduce the filtering capacity. Most manufacturers recommend 100 or 200 mesh
(150 or 75µm) screen filter.
Media filters consist of fine gravel and sand of selected sizes or sand filters with artificial sand are used in addition to screen or disc filters in places of surface water pumping which contains more of organic impurities and suspended solids.
Hydroclyclone filters or sand separators or centrifugal filters remove suspended particles that have a specific gravity greater than water and that are larger that 75 µm but these filters are ineffective in removing the organic solids. These filters are mostly used for bore well waters which contain suspended particles (Sand etc., ) in addition to the screen or disc filters.
 Pressure gauges are to be fitted in the inlet and outlet of the filters
 Whenever there is a pressure difference of 20 % between these two gauges, the filters are to be cleaned.
 There are backwash arrangement in filters by which the cleaning is easy.
 While dismantling and assembling of filters, care should be taken so that no impurities enter the pipeline.
 Cleaning of filters should be at periodical intervals, may be daily in some cases where water is with more impurities or atleast once in a week if impurities are considerably less.
Cleaning of main, submains and lateral
Frequent cleaning of these lines will keep the pipelines free of impurities. Flushing at the end of main line, submains and laterals is to be done periodically. Daily flushing is advisable or flushing after two or three application (once in a week) is necessary to flush out the impurities along with the water under pressure by opening the flush valves or end valves at the end of each line.
General Maintenance:
(a) Check for the operating pressure, functioning of laterals and emitters, wetting zone, leakages etc., periodically and rectify the defects if any
(b) Check the uniformity of discharge at monthly intervals or at weekly intervals if the water is of poor quality. Water meters can also be fitted for proper monitoring of uniformity.

Control of clogging:
The major problem of drip irrigation is clogging of system components by biological and chemical impurities. The passage of flow of water in the drippers are extremely small and are easily clogged by organic debris & mineral particles carried in irrigation water and chemical precipitates and biological growth that develop within the system. Clogging adversely affects rate of water application, uniformity and increases operating cost.
(i) Chlorination : is done to remove biological growth like algae, bacterial slime, microbial deposition etc., Chlorine in the form of calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder-65% available chlorine) or Sodium hypochlorite (Liquid form -5-10% free chlorine) is used for chlorination treatment.
Three types of chlorination:

1. Continuous chlorination: Chlorine is injected continuously during irrigation at the rate of 1-2mg/litre (1-2ppm).
2. Intermittent chlorination: is done once in 15 days or according to the amount of organic debris present in water. Chlorine is injected at the rate of 10-20mg/litre(10-20ppm).
3. Super chlorination: When a system is partially clogged with organic material, super chlorination is essential where in chlorine is injected at the rate of 500mg/litre (500ppm)
   Calculation of Sodium hypochlorite required:
   Pump discharge = 2 lps
   Concentration of chlorine required = 5 ppm
   Irrigation time = 3 hours
   Concentration of Sodium hypochlorite = 10 % chlorine
   Total volume of water during the irrigation time = 2×3×60×60
   = 21, 600 litres
   Therefore Chlorine required = 5ppm= 5mg/litre
   Therefore For 21, 600 litres = 21, 600 × 5 =108000mg
   = 108g
   Therefore Sodium hypochlorite required = 108× 10=1080g
   = 1.08kg

(ii) Acid Treatment or Acidification :
If irrigation water contains salts, encrustation of pipes & drippers occur. When Ca % Mg exceeds 50 ppm each, clogging will occur & this will reduce the discharge rate of pipes & drippers.
To remove chemical precipitates or salts deposited in pipes, lateral and drippers acid treatment is given. Technical grade hydrochloric acid (36%) of 0.5-2% concentration is injected into the system. The pH needed is 2.0 for solubilising the salts. After injecting the acid until the pH is 2.0 at the emitter, the system is shut off. After 24 hours all the ends are opened and flushed out.
 The frequency of acid treatment depends on the total salts present in water (Once in 15 days to once in 3 months).
 Sulphuric acid can also be used.
 Phosphoric acid can also be used besides it adds phosphorus.
 The amount of acid needed is one litre per 1000 litres of water.
 Injection rate of acid
3.6×Qs×A
IR = ---------------
V
Where, IR= Injection rate of acid (litres/hr)
Qs= System flow rate (litres/sec)
A= Acid quantity in milliliters to achieves the required pH in water
test samples of volume ‘V’ litres.
V= Volume of test samples

[RAMU]

Major soluble constituents of irrigation water are -
Cations +

Ca2+
Mg2+
Na+
K+

Anions -

SO4 2-
HCO3 -
CO3 2-
Cl-
Other elements viz.,
Li,Si,Cu,I,Ni,Co,F,B,Ba,Ar,
Sb,Bi,Cr,Mn,Pb,Mo,Se,PO4 and organic materials.

Factors affecting soluble salts in ground water

Physico chemical char. of the parent rock
Climate of the area
Micro organism present in the area.
Mineralogical characteristics of the soil
Topography
Sea water intrusion in coastal areas.
Human interference.

Irrigation Water Quality Criteria

Salinity hazard – Total soluble salt

Specific ion toxicity hazard

Sodicity hazard – Relative proportion of Na

Alkalinity hazard – Relative Bicarbonate
concentration
Solubility of salts in water
Salts of high solubility
CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl
MgSO4
NaHCO3
Na2SO4
Salinity hazard
Salt Concentration 80 me/l at field capacity
Salt Concentration 40 - 50 me/l at saturation

Salinity hazard
Salt Concentration 80 me/l at field capacity
Salt Concentration 40 - 50 me/l at saturation
EC and Salinity
EC VALUE dS/M SALINITY HAZARD
0.25 VERY LOW
0.25- 0.75 LOW
0.75 -2.25 MEDIUM
2.25-5.0 HIGH

5.0 VERY HIGH

0.25 EXCELLENT FOR ALL SOIL
0.25-0.75 NOT SUITABLE FOR HEAVY SOILS AND SENSITIVE CROPS
0.75 - 1.50 SOIL WITH MODERATE TO GOOD PERMEABILITY
1.50 - 3.0 PERMEABLE SOIL WITH TOLERANT CROPS

3.0 USE ONLY AS SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCE

0.25 LOW SALINITY
0.25- 0.75 MEDIUM SALINITY
0.75- 2.25 HIGH SALINITY
2.25 - 5.0 VERY HIGH SALINITY

STANDARDS OF GROUND WATER WITH RESPECT TO SOILS
NATURE OF SOIL EC dS/m for crops
semi tolerant tolerant
deep black soil and alluvial soil 1.5 2.0

30 % clay ( fair to moderate drainage)
Heavy textured soil , clay 20-30 % , good drainage 2.0 4.0
Medium textured soil ,clay 10-20 % , good drainage 4.0 6.0
light textured soil , clay <10% excellent drainage 6.0 8.0

PH AND SALINITY

TOTAL SOLUBLE SALTS IN ppm SUITABLE PH UNSUITABLE PH
<400 <9 >9
400-600 < 8.5 >8.5
600-800 <8 >8
800-10000 doubtful for irrigation

10000 unsuitable for irrigation

chloride and salinity

2 me/litre is safe for cultivation
Chloride and Sulphate salinity
CHLORIDE dS/m SULPHATE dS/m CROP GROWTH

4 6 100 % growth
4-8 6-12 80-90 % growth
8-12 12-20 50-70 % growth
12-20 20-40 20-50 % growth

20 <40 0

Chloride hazard for Citrus
EC dS/m CHLORIDE me/lit FOR CLEY SOIL

1.2 6 NO RISK
1.2 - 1.5 6 - 7.5 LOW RISK
1.5- 1.75 7.5 - 9 MEDIUM RISK
1.75 - 2.25 9-15 NOT SUITABLE

                POTENTIAL SALINITY 
                 GOOD PERMEABLE                     MEDIUM PERMEABLE      LOW PERMEABLE  

GOOD <5 <3 <3
SATISFACTORY 5-20 3-15 3-7
NOT SUITABLE >20 >15 >7

Residual Sodium Carbonate (me/l
DEGREE OF PROBLEM LIMITS
NO PROBLEM <1.25
INCREASING PROBLEM 1.25 - 2.5
SEVERE PROBLEM >2.5

Residual Sodium Bicarbonate (me/l

DEGREE OF PROBLEM LIMITS

NO PROBLEM <10
SEVERE PROBLEM >10

SOLUBLE SODIUM PERCENTAGE

DEGREE OF PROBLEM LIMITS
No problem <60
increasing problem 60- 75
not suitable >75

Magnesium to Ca + Mg Ratio
DEGREE OF PROBLEM LIMITS
No problem <0.5
Not suitable >0.5

BORON CONTENT IN ppm
DEGREE OF PROBLEM BORON LIMIT

No problem 0.5
increasing problem 0.5 - 2.0
severe problem >2

Boron Tolerant Crops
TOLERANT CROPS SEMI TOLERANT CROPS SENSITIVE CROPS
Palmyra palm sunflower Apple
dates potato orange
onion tomato grapes
cabbage wheat citrus

Sodium Adsorption Ratio
SAR VALUE WATER QUALITY
0-10 low injury to crops
10-18 can be used with management technologies
18-26 not suited to most crops

26 not suited for irrigation

Classification of irrigation water quality
PH EC dS/m SAR RSC (m2/L ) NATURE OF WATER

6.5 - 8.0 <0.5 <15 - GOOD
8.0- 8.4 0.5 - 2.0 15-20 <2.5 MEDIUM

8.4 >2 >25 >2.5 UNSUITABLE

Classification of irrigation water quality

QUALITY OF WATER EC dS/m PH Na% CHLORIDE me/lit SAR

EXCELLENT 0.5 6.5 - 7.5 30 2.5 1
GOOD 0.5-1.5 7.5-8.0 30-60 2.5 - 5.0 1.0-2.0
FAIR 1.5- 3.0 8.0- 8.5 60-75 5.0-7.5 2.0-4.0
POOR 3.0-5.0 8.5 - 9.0 75-80 7.5 - 10 4.0-8.0
VERY POOR 5.0-6.0 9-10 80-90 10-12.5 8.0-15
UNSUITABLE > 6 >10 >90 >12.5 >15

Management aspects
Application of FYM etc., improves permeability and structure.

Keeping gypsum gunny bags in the channel increases calcium content.

Conjunctive use of poor quality water with good quality water.

Incorporating green manure crops.
Application of increased fertilizer dose N-as AmSO4 ,P- as Super PO4 and DAP.

Improve drainage.

Raising salt tolerant crops – cotton, ragi, sugar beet, paddy, ground nut, sorghum, maize, sunflower, chillies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans, amaranthus and lucerne.

Special considerations while using poor quality of water

Saline water having SAR > 20 and
Mg/Ca > 3 leads to water stagnation - Apply gypsum .
Leave the field fallow during rainy season.
Cl/SO4 > 2.0 addition of P.
Use canal water in conjunction with saline water during early crop stage.
Addition of 20% extra seed rate.

I. MANAGEMENT OF SALINE WATER

Tillage – Loosen the dense sub-soil
- percolation of salts & Root penetration

Induction of Salt hardiness
Treating the seeds/Seedling with salt solution

Method of planting broad bed / furrows

Higher seed rate/Aged seedlings
II. PLANTING TECHNIQUE

III. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Optimum Irrigation Interval – Less quantity of water and more frequent Irrigation keeps Soil moisture at max. and the salt concentration (OP) will be at a minimum
Drip and Sprinkler system of irrigation

Pre sowing Irrigation
Salts accumulate in the top soil during non crop period
Heavy pre sowing irrigation will leach surface salts and improve germination & early growth
IV. MULCHING

Mulches reduce the water losses by evaporation and reduce salts accumulation
Prevent upward movement of salts to the surface
Appreciable improvement in the water permeability

Growing Salt tolerance of crops
Tolerant
Field crops:
Barley, sugar beet, cotton, sugarcane
Vegetables:
Turnip, beet root.
Fruits:
Date palm, coconut.

Semi Tolerant
Rice, sorghum, maize,
red gram.

Tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, potato, carrot, onion.
Sensitive
Field beans, grams, peasGreen beans
EFFECT OF SALINITY ON RICE

EFFECT OF SALINE SODIC
WATER ON RICE IN HEAVY CLAY SOILS




Grapes, guava, mango, apple